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Historical research indicates that More than two centuries after Newton published the scientific community did not use Newton''Principia'', a new theory of motion and gravitation was formulated by Albert Einstein (1879-1955), who was inspired by new developments in non-Euclidean geometry and by problems with James Clerk Maxwell's own criteria in evaluating his work(1831-1879) theory of electromagnetic radiation. The new theory replaced Newton's theories did not become theory as the accepted outside theory of England until after its prediction of the oblate spheroid shape of the Earth was confirmed motion and gravitation by expeditions to Lapland and Peruabout 1920. Thus, NewtonEinstein's theories became accepted via a '''hypothetico-deductive methodGeneral Theory of Relativity''' based on confirmed novel predictions explained the success of its predecessor by showing that distinguished it from its equations reduce to those of Newton in the rival Cartesian vortices, rather than via Newtonlimit of weak gravitational fields and velocities that are an insignificant fraction of that of light. Einstein's own '''inductive methodology'''theory eliminated the problem of action at a distance by postulating that object mass warps space-time, and that the local manifestation of this curvature influences distant bodies. [[CiteRef::Barseghyan (2015)|p. 48-49125]][[CiteRef::Terrall Isaacson (19922007)]] Newton's experimental philosophy shaped accepted claims about scientific methodology, influencing the methodological pronouncements of George Berkeley (1685-1753), David Hume, Thomas Reid (1710-1796), and Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). [[CiteRef::McMullin (2001)]] According However, according to McMullin, Newton's methodology ran contrary to the consensus that had been emerging among natural philosophers of his time, in favor of hypothesisthe '''hypothetico-deductive method'''. [[CiteRef::McMullin (2001)]] Christiaan Huygens and John Locke are known to have taken Historical research shows that the experimental philosophy, if scientific community did not necessarily the full content of Newton’s theories, to heart.[[CiteRef::Janiak (2016)]]|Criticism=use Newton's own criteria in evaluating his work. His theories provoked immediate and wide interest in Britain, and became did not become accepted there by the first decade outside of England until after their prediction of the eighteenth century. [[CiteRef::Smith (2009)]][[CiteRef::Barseghyan (2015) p. 210]] In continental Europe, acceptance came more slowly. To proponents oblate spheroid shape of the mechanical philosophy, it Earth was methodologically necessary that all motion be given a cause involving direct physical contact of bodiesconfirmed by expeditions to Lapland and Peru. Many of Newton's continental contemporaries, in particular Leibniz and Huygens, strongly objected to the idea own theories became accepted via a '''hypothetico-deductive method''' based on confirmed novel predictions that forces could act at a distance. Leibniz regarded distinguished them from the rival theory of gravitation as a regression in natural philosophy and accused Cartesian vortices, rather than by Newton of treating gravity as an 'occult qualitys own '''inductive methodology''' beyond philosophical understanding. After an intense debate Further, Newton's theory, in the early eighteenth centuryfact, posited unobservable hypothetical entities, including gravitational attraction, absolute space, and absolute time. [[CiteRef::Janiak (2016)]] Newtonian gravitation theory became accepted through much of continental Europe by the mid-eighteenth century [[CiteRef::Barseghyan (2015) pp|p. 21148-21249]][[CiteRef::Aiton Terrall (19581992) p. 172]][[CiteRef::Frangsmyr McMullin (19742001) p. 35]]
More than two centuries after By the mid-eighteenth century natural philosophers were beginning to realize that many successful theories violated the strictures of Newton published 's inductive experimental philosophy. The eighteenth century saw the ''Principia'', acceptance of a new theory variety of motion and gravitation was formulated by Albert Einstein (1879-1955)other theories that posited unobservable entities, who was inspired by new developments in non-Euclidean geometry and by problems with James Clerk Maxwellincluding Benjamin Franklin's (18311706-18791790) theory of electromagnetic radiation. The new theory replaced Newton's theory as electricity, which posited the existence of an unobservable electric fluid, the accepted phlogiston theory of motion combustion and gravitation by about 1920. Einsteinrust, which likewise posited an unobservable substance, and Augustin-Jean Fresnel's '''General Theory (1788-1827) wave theory of Relativity''' explained light which posited an unobservable fluid ether as the success medium of its predecessor by showing that its equations reduce to those of Newton in the limit of weak gravitational fields light, and velocities that are an insignificant fraction of that of light. EinsteinHerman Boerhaave's (1668-1738) vibratory theory eliminated the problem of action at a distance by postulating that massive objects warp spaceheat. [[CiteRef::Laudan (1984)|pp. 56-time, and that this local curvature influences bodies. 57]][[CiteRef::Barseghyan (2015) | p. 12554]] The methodologists of the early nineteenth century, William Whewell (1794-1866)and John Hershel(1792-1871)recognized that the actual practice of science did not conform to the prescribed Newtonian methodology and openly advocated the hypothetico-deductive method. [[CiteRef::Isaacson Laudan (20071984)|pp. 56-60]]
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Out of these four rules a new, engaged method for conducting science emerged that stood in stark contrast to the previous passive and theoretical Cartesian and Aristotelian-scholastic methods. Propositions formulated based on observations of the natural world and placed back into the natural world to be tested empirically.[[CiteRef::Smith (2002)]] The calculus became deeply incorporated into the experimental method, as it was used to mathematically calculate empirical predictions from natural laws, and then evaluate how exactly the prediction matched the observed reality. Newton claimed to have derived his law of universal gravitation using this method as applied to Kepler's laws of planetary motion. In the Cartesian natural philosophy, centripetal force had already been defined as the agent that pulled the moon towards the Earth, keeping its orbit circular rather than linear. Newton appealed to rules 1) and 2) to claim that the centripetal force, and the force that compelled objects to move downwards towards the Earth, were merely two different expressions of the same thing. Newton then went on to apply the third rule, and argue that this force, which he called gravity, must be a universal property of all material objects. From here, he went on to argue for the unification of superlunary and sublunary phenomena, which Aristotle had deemed to be distinct realms.[[CiteRef::Harper (2002)|pp. 183-184]]
|Criticism=Newton's theories provoked immediate and wide interest in Britain, and became accepted there by the first decade of the eighteenth century. [[CiteRef::Smith (2009)]][[CiteRef::Barseghyan (2015) p. 210]] In continental Europe, acceptance came more slowly. To proponents of the mechanical philosophy, it was methodologically necessary that all motion be given a cause involving direct physical contact of bodies. Many of Newton's continental contemporaries, in particular Leibniz and Huygens, strongly objected to the idea that forces could act at a distance. Leibniz regarded the theory of gravitation as a regression in natural philosophy and accused Newton of treating gravity as an 'occult quality' beyond philosophical understanding. After an intense debate in the early eighteenth century. [[CiteRef::Janiak (2016)]] Newtonian gravitation theory became accepted through much of continental Europe by the mid-eighteenth century [[CiteRef::Barseghyan (2015) pp. 211-212]][[CiteRef::Aiton (1958) p. 172]][[CiteRef::Frangsmyr (1974) p. 35]]
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