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|Summary=Pierre Duhem was a French born philosopher and physicists physicist who worked in the field of thermodynamics and worked clear up to clarify the relationship between evidence and theory. Specifically, he brought to light the idea that due to lack of logic linking hypothesis with evidence, data is not enough to know whether the hypothesis is correct or the underlying assumptions are correct.

In his most notable work, The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory, he explained many of his theories on the topics of instrumentalism, how evidence does not certainly reject a theory (Duhem - Quine thesis) and the holistic view of science. He also opposed Newton's view on science and moved to defy his statement that gravity was deduced from phenomena , and the entire structure of induction.|Historical Context=In Pierre Duhem held conservative political and religious views while working Duhem’s time, the the late 19th century French society whose scientists were liberal and often very anti-religiousmajor idea regarding scientific change was induction which was called inductive sciences. It would make broad generalizations from specific observations.

His main works in science and Duhem opposed many of the beliefs accepted at the work he is best known for is time including the work he did on thermodynamicsidea of infallibilism. His work spans from his failed dissertation At the time, as a result of Newton’s Experimentum Crucis, many scientists and philosopher’s believed in 1885 to 1911the idea of crucial experiments. He believed These are experiments that generalized thermodynamics could provide determine if a hypothesis or theory is superior or all other theories and hypothesis. Duhem developed the foundation idea of all physics and chemistryunder-determinism which stated it was impossible to know whether data proved a theory to be superior or simply supported an underlying assumption. [[CiteRef::Kanschik(2009)]]

In philosophy of science, he worked on the theory surrounding the relationship between a theory and experiment. He rejected both Newton's theory and atomism accepting his own idea of thermodynamics. Although Duhem's rejection of atomism was a belief in instrumentalism, he did believe that there was an ultimate truth. Certain groups of physics such as thermodynamics was a way to reach it. He believed that generalized thermodynamics could provide the foundation of all physics and chemistry.