Barseghyan (2015)
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Barseghyan, Hakob. (2015) The Laws of Scientific Change. Springer.
| Title | The Laws of Scientific Change |
|---|---|
| Cover | 
|
| Resource Type | book |
| Author(s) | Hakob Barseghyan |
| Year | 2015 |
| Publisher | Springer |
| ISBN | 9783319175959 |
Abstract
This book systematically creates a general descriptive theory of scientific change that explains the mechanics of changes in both scientific theories and the methods of their assessment. It was once believed that, while scientific theories change through time, their change itself is governed by a fixed method of science. Nowadays we know that there is no such thing as an unchangeable method of science; the criteria employed by scientists in theory evaluation also change through time. But if that is so, how and why do theories and methods change? Are there any general laws that govern this process, or is the choice of theories and methods completely arbitrary and random?
Contrary to the widespread opinion, the book argues that scientific change is indeed a law-governed process and that there can be a general descriptive theory of scientific change. It does so by first presenting meta-theoretical issues, divided into chapters on the scope, possibility and assessment of theory of scientific change. It then builds a theory about the general laws that govern the process of scientific change, and goes into detail about the axioms and theorems of the theory.
Theories
Here are all the theories formulated in Barseghyan (2015):
| Theory | Type | Formulation | Formulated In |
|---|---|---|---|
| History of Scientific Change (Barseghyan-2015) | Definition | A descriptive discipline that attempts to trace and explain individual changes in the scientific mosaic. | 2015 |
| Outcome Accept (Barseghyan-2015) | Definition | An outcome of theory assessment which prescribes that the theory must be accepted. | 2015 |
| Theory (Barseghyan-2015) | Definition | A set of propositions that attempt to describe something. | 2015 |
| Substantive Method (Barseghyan-2015) | Definition | A method which presupposes at least one contingent proposition. | 2015 |
| Theory Use (Barseghyan-2015) | Definition | A theory is said to be used if it is taken as an adequate tool for practical application. | 2015 |
| Outcome Not Accept (Barseghyan-2015) | Definition | An outcome of theory assessment which prescribes that the theory must not be accepted. | 2015 |
| Theory Acceptance (Barseghyan-2015) | Definition | A theory is said to be accepted if it is taken as the best available description of its object. | 2015 |
| Procedural Method (Barseghyan-2015) | Definition | A method which doesn't presuppose any contingent propositions. | 2015 |
| Theory Pursuit (Barseghyan-2015) | Definition | A theory is said to be pursued if it is considered worthy of further development. | 2015 |
| Scientific Change (Barseghyan-2015) | Definition | Any change in the scientific mosaic, i.e. a transition from one accepted theory to another or from one employed method to another. | 2015 |
| Demarcation Criteria (Barseghyan-2015) | Definition | Criteria for determining whether a theory is scientific or unscientific. | 2015 |
| Outcome Inconclusive (Barseghyan-2015) | Definition | An outcome of theory assessment which allows for the theory to be accepted but doesn't dictate so. | 2015 |
| Scientific Mosaic (Barseghyan-2015) | Definition | A set of all accepted theories and employed methods. | 2015 |
| Mosaic Merge (Barseghyan-2015) | Definition | A scientific change where two mosaics turn into one united mosaic. | 2015 |
| Employed Method (Barseghyan-2015) | Definition | A method is said to be employed at time t if, at time t, theories become accepted only when their acceptance is permitted by the method. | 2015 |
| Compatibility Criteria (Barseghyan-2015) | Definition | Criteria for determining whether two theories are compatible or incompatible. | 2015 |
| Methodology (Barseghyan-2015) | Definition | A set of explicitly formulated rules of theory assessment. | 2015 |
| Social Level (Barseghyan-2015) | Definition | The level of the scientific community and its mosaic of accepted theories and employed methods. | 2015 |
| Acceptance Criteria (Barseghyan-2015) | Definition | Criteria for determining whether a theory is acceptable or unacceptable. | 2015 |
| Method (Barseghyan-2015) | Definition | A set of requirements for employment in theory assessment. | 2015 |
| Individual Level (Barseghyan-2015) | Definition | The level of the beliefs of the individual scientist about the world and the rules she employs in theory assessment. | 2015 |
| Mosaic Split (Barseghyan-2015) | Definition | A scientific change where one mosaic transforms into two or more mosaics. | 2015 |
| Pursuit as Distinct from Acceptance (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | Pursuit is a distinct epistemic stance that is not reducible to or expressible through acceptance. | 2015 |
| Contextual Appraisal theorem (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | Theory assessment is an assessment of a proposed modification of the mosaic by the method employed at the time. | 2015 |
| Bearers of Mosaic - Communities (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | Only a community can be a bearer of a scientific mosaic. | 2015 |
| Sociocultural Factors Exists | Descriptive | There is such a thing as a sociocultural factors. | 2015 |
| The First Law (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | An element of the mosaic remains in the mosaic unless replaced by other elements. | 2015 |
| Epistemic Stances Towards Theories - Theory Acceptance (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | The stance of theory acceptance can be taken towards a theory. | 2015 |
| Methodology Can Shape Method theorem (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | A methodology can shape employed methods, but only if its requirements implement abstract requirements of some other employed method. | 2015 |
| Acceptance Criteria Exists | Descriptive | There is such a thing as acceptance criteria. | 2015 |
| Response to the Argument from Bad Track Record (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | The failures of past theories of scientific change do not imply the inevitability of future failure or that the enterprise in inherently unsound. | 2015 |
| Epistemic Stance Exists | Descriptive | There is such a thing as an epistemic stance. | 2015 |
| Necessary Mosaic Split theorem (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | When two mutually incompatible theories satisfy the requirements of the current method, the mosaic necessarily splits in two. | 2015 |
| Substantive Method Exists | Descriptive | There is such a thing as a substantive method. | 2015 |
| Mosaic Split Exists | Descriptive | There is such a thing as a mosaic split. | 2015 |
| Epistemic Stances Towards Methods - Employment (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | The list of possible stances towards a method is limited to employment. | 2015 |
| Synchronism of Method Rejection theorem (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | A method becomes rejected only when some of the theories, from which it follows, also become rejected. | 2015 |
| Descriptive Theory Exists | Descriptive | There is such a thing as a descriptive theory. | 2015 |
| Compatibility Exists | Descriptive | There is such a thing as compatibility. | 2015 |
| The Zeroth Law (Harder-2015) | Descriptive | At any moment of time, the elements of the scientific mosaic are compatible with each other. | 2015 |
| Theory Use Is a Subtype of Epistemic Stance (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | Theory Use is a subtype of Epistemic Stance, i.e. epistemic stance is a supertype of theory use. | 2015 |
| Sociocultural Factors in Theory Acceptance theorem (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | Sociocultural factors can affect the process of theory acceptance insofar as it is permitted by the method employed at the time. | 2015 |
| Demarcation Criteria are Part of Method (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | A demarcation criterion is always part of some method. | 2015 |
| Response to the Argument from Changeability of Scientific Method (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | Scientonomy does not postulate the existence of a universal and unchanging method of science; thus the fact that methods of science are changeable is not detrimental to the prospects of scientonomy. | 2015 |
| Theory Acceptance Is a Subtype of Epistemic Stance (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | Theory Acceptance is a subtype of Epistemic Stance, i.e. epistemic stance is a supertype of theory acceptance. | 2015 |
| Possible Mosaic Split theorem (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | When a theory assessment outcome is inconclusive, a mosaic split is possible. | 2015 |
| Procedural Method Exists | Descriptive | There is such a thing as a procedural method. | 2015 |
| Methodology Exists | Descriptive | There is such a thing as a methodology. | 2015 |
| Theory Rejection theorem (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | A theory becomes rejected only when other theories that are incompatible with the theory become accepted. | 2015 |
| Dogmatism No Theory Change theorem (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | If an accepted theory is taken as the final truth, it will always remain accepted; no new theory on the subject can ever be accepted. | 2015 |
| The First Law for Theories (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | An accepted theory remains accepted unless replaced by other theories. | 2015 |
| Scientific Change Exists | Descriptive | There is such a thing as scientific change. | 2015 |
| Theory Pursuit Is a Subtype of Epistemic Stance (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | Theory Pursuit is a subtype of Epistemic Stance, i.e. epistemic stance is a supertype of theory pursuit. | 2015 |
| Compatibility Criteria are Part of Method (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | A compatibility criterion is always part of some method. | 2015 |
| Response to the Argument from Nothing Permanent (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | If there were indeed nothing permanent in science, then scientonomy would be impossible, however, scientonomy posits only that there are regularities in the process of scientific change. | 2015 |
| Theory Acceptance Exists | Descriptive | There is such a thing as theory acceptance. | 2015 |
| Dynamic Substantive Methods theorem (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | All substantive methods are necessarily dynamic. | 2015 |
| Procedural Method Is a Subtype of Method (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | Procedural Method is a subtype of Method, i.e. method is a supertype of procedural method. | 2015 |
| Scientific Mosaic Exists | Descriptive | There is such a thing as a scientific mosaic. | 2015 |
| Theory Is a Subtype of Epistemic Element (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | Theory is a subtype of Epistemic Element, i.e. epistemic element is a supertype of theory. | 2015 |
| Underdetermined Method Change theorem (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | The process of method change is not necessarily deterministic: employed methods are by no means the only possible implementations of abstract requirements. | 2015 |
| The First Law for Methods (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | An employed method remains employed unless replaced by other methods. | 2015 |
| Scientific Community Exists | Descriptive | There is such a thing as a scientific community. | 2015 |
| Indicators of Method Employment (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | The employed method of theory appraisal of a community at some time is not necessarily indicated by the methodological texts of that time and must be inferred from actual patterns of theory acceptance and other indirect evidence. | 2015 |
| Method Rejection theorem (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | A method ceases to be employed only when other methods that are incompatible with the method become employed. | 2015 |
| Epistemic Stances Towards Theories - Theory Pursuit (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | The stance of theory pursuit can be taken towards a theory. | 2015 |
| Demarcation Criteria Exists | Descriptive | There is such a thing as a demarcation criteria. | 2015 |
| Asynchronism of Method Employment theorem (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | The employment of new methods can be but is not necessarily a result of the acceptance of new theories. | 2015 |
| Possibility of Scientonomy (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | Scientonomy is possible because the process of scientific change exhibits lawful general regularities. | 2015 |
| Theory Exists | Descriptive | There is such a thing as a theory. | 2015 |
| Static Procedural Methods theorem (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | All procedural methods are necessarily static. | 2015 |
| Substantive Method Is a Subtype of Method (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | Substantive Method is a subtype of Method, i.e. method is a supertype of substantive method. | 2015 |
| Theory Assessment Outcomes (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | The possible outcomes of theory assessment are accept, not accept, and inconclusive. | 2015 |
| The Third Law (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | A method becomes employed only when it is deducible from other employed methods and accepted theories of the time. | 2015 |
| Method Is a Subtype of Epistemic Element (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | Method is a subtype of Epistemic Element, i.e. epistemic element is a supertype of method. | 2015 |
| Underdetermined Theory Change theorem (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | The process of theory change is not necessarily deterministic: there may be cases when both a theory's acceptance and its unacceptance are equally possible. | 2015 |
| Theory Pursuit Exists | Descriptive | There is such a thing as theory pursuit. | 2015 |
| Method Exists | Descriptive | There is such a thing as a method. | 2015 |
| Indicators of Theory Acceptance (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | Indicators of theory acceptance are textual sources that represent the position of a scientific community regarding a theory at some time. Useful indicators are contextual to time and culture. They might include such things as encyclopedias, textbooks, university curricula, and minutes of association meetings. | 2015 |
| Non-Empty Mosaic theorem (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | In order for the process of scientific change to be possible, the mosaic must necessarily contain at least one element. That is, scientific change is impossible in an empty mosaic. | 2015 |
| Epistemic Stances Towards Theories - Theory Use (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | The stance of theory use can be taken towards a theory. | 2015 |
| Compatibility Criteria Exists | Descriptive | There is such a thing as a compatibility criteria. | 2015 |
| Response to the Argument from Social Construction (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | Science can be said to be socially constructed in several different senses (e.g. the contingency, nominalist, and reducibility theses). None of these preclude the possibility of scientonomy. | 2015 |
| The Second Law (Barseghyan-2015) is Tautological (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | Barseghyan's original second law is tautological. | 2015 |
| Necessary Method theorem (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | In order for the process of scientific change to be possible, the mosaic must necessarily contain at least one employed method. | 2015 |
| Acceptance Criteria are Part of Method (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | An acceptance criterion is always part of some method. | 2015 |
| Split Due to Inconclusiveness theorem (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | When a mosaic split is a result of the acceptance of only one theory, it can only be a result of inconclusive theory assessment. | 2015 |
| The Second Law (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | In order to become accepted into the mosaic, a theory is assessed by the method actually employed at the time. | 2015 |
| Descriptive Theory Is a Subtype of Theory (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | Descriptive Theory is a subtype of Theory, i.e. theory is a supertype of descriptive theory. | 2015 |
| Scientific Underdeterminism theorem (Barseghyan-2015) | Descriptive | Transitions from one state of the mosaic to another are not necessarily deterministic. Scientific change is not a strictly deterministic process. | 2015 |
| Theory Use Exists | Descriptive | There is such a thing as theory use. | 2015 |
| Mosaic Merge Exists | Descriptive | There is such a thing as a mosaic merge. | 2015 |
| Scope of Scientonomy - Social (Barseghyan-2015) | Normative | It is implicit in the definition of scientonomy that it should explain changes in the scientific mosaic of accepted theories and employed methods, which are changes at the level of the scientific community. It need not account for changes at the level of the beliefs of individuals. | 2015 |
| Scope of Scientonomy - Acceptance (Barseghyan-2015) | Normative | Scientonomy ought to address the issue of how transitions from one accepted theory to another take place and what logic governs this evolution, and need not deal in questions of theory pursuit or use. | 2015 |
| Scope of Scientonomy - Appraisal (Barseghyan-2015) | Normative | Scientonomy should describe and explain how changes in the mosaic of accepted scientific theories and employed methods take place. Any such instance of scientific change is a result of appraisal, which is a decision of the community to accept a proposed modification to the mosaic. Scientonomy must provide an account of this appraisal process. A theory of scientific change is not required to account for the process of theory construction. | 2015 |
| Scope of Scientonomy - Implicit and Explicit (Barseghyan-2017) | Normative | A scientonomic theory ought to distinguish between explicit statements of methodology, and actual employed methods, which may sometimes be implicit. It ought to account for employed methods, whether they correspond with stated methodology, or are purely implicit. | 2017 |
| Scope of Scientonomy - All Fields (Barseghyan-2015) | Normative | Scientonomy should account for all changes to the scientific mosaic, regardless of which fields of inquiry they concern. | 2015 |
| Assessment of Scientonomy - Relevant Facts (Barseghyan-2015) | Normative | At the level of metatheory, the relevant evidence for assessing a scientonomic theory ought to be the facts relating to the state of the scientific mosaic and its transitions. The complete list of relevant phenomena that ought to be considered can only be identified for a specific scientonomic theory. | 2015 |
| Scope of Scientonomy - All Scales (Barseghyan-2015) | Normative | Scientonomy should provide explanations of all kinds of changes to the scientific mosaic at all scales from the most minor transitions to the most major. | 2015 |
| Scope of Scientonomy - All Time Periods (Barseghyan-2015) | Normative | Scientonomy ought to account for all scientific changes for all time periods where a scientific mosaic can be found. | 2015 |
| Scope of Scientonomy - Descriptive (Barseghyan-2015) | Normative | Scientonomy is a descriptive discipline whose main task is to explain the process of changes in the scientific mosaic. It is distinct from normative methodology, whose task is to evaluate and prescribe methods. The findings of scientonomy may be used in such normative evaluations, but scientonomy itself should not be expected to perform any normative functions. | 2015 |
